During the time of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, a delegation led by the famed companion Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari came to seek counsel. They expressed their difficulty in reaching the Prophet regularly due to the prohibitions on warfare during sacred months. They requested a succinct yet comprehensive teaching that they could hold fast to and also impart to their clansmen who could not make the journey. The Prophet’s first instruction was: "Believe that there is no god but Allah." Then he asked, "Do you understand what it means to believe that there is no god but Allah?" The delegation replied, "Allah and His Messenger know best." The Prophet then clarified: "To testify that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and that Muhammad is His Messenger" (Bukhari, Muslim).

This concise statement not only summarizes the Islamic creed but also contains within it the foundational structure of Islamic belief. It indicates that affirming God’s oneness (tawḥīd) necessitates recognizing the Prophet’s role as His messenger. Thus, belief in prophethood is not an optional corollary but a core element of faith. This link is further reinforced by the historical context into which the Prophet ﷺ introduced this message.

The Context of Prophetic Monotheism

When the Prophet ﷺ first declared the oneness of God, he confronted a society steeped in polytheism. The Arabs of Mecca worshipped idols carved from stone and wood, often adorned with gold or silver. These idols were imagined to possess human-like forms, lineages, genders, and needs. Some were thought to eat and drink. Many of their followers believed in divine incarnations and ascribed godhood to particular human beings. Ascetics and spiritual leaders manipulated public credulity to present themselves as vessels of divine will.

Jews and Christians, despite their claims to monotheism, too had compromised the idea of divine unity. Among Christians, a large segment believed in a Trinity that included a Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, along with Mary as the "Mother of God". Jews, while claiming monotheism, also attributed corporeal and anthropomorphic characteristics to God, even assigning Him a son— ‘Uzayr. Other religious communities, such as the Zoroastrians, worshipped fire, while the Sabians venerated celestial bodies.

In this theological milieu, when the Qur’an called people to believe in one, indivisible God, it inevitably raised questions. Who is this God? Is He sentient or insentient? If sentient, is He male or female? If insentient, is He gold or silver, wood or stone? The Qur’an’s response, particularly in Surah al-Baqarah, addresses this backdrop. The chapter begins with the divine command: “Say, O Prophet…”—a stylistic feature underscoring that theological propositions are to be accepted as part of the prophetic communication. Faith in God is inseparable from the recognition of His Messenger.

Thus, tawḥīd and belief in prophethood form the twin foundations of Islamic belief, summed up in the shahāda: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” Tawḥīd grounds the metaphysical claim, while belief in prophethood provides the epistemic and ethical anchor of Muslim life.

Adam and the Chain of Prophets

According to authentic hadith traditions (Sahih Ibn Hibban), Prophet Adam عليه السلام was the first human and the first prophet. The Semitic scriptures also affirm that Adam was the first man. Among Muslim scholars, there has long been a discourse on whether other human-like creatures may have existed before Adam. But before entering that debate, we must understand what the modern theory of evolution proposes.

The Evolutionary Hypothesis: A Scientific Outline

The theory of evolution, in its essence, posits that all life forms on earth descended from a common ancestor that lived around 3.7 billion years ago. Over time, due to genetic mutations and natural selection, diverse life forms emerged. While thinkers like Lamarck had theorized about transformation in species, it was Charles Darwin who in 1859 proposed natural selection as the mechanism by which evolution proceeds, in his seminal work On the Origin of Species.

In Darwinian terms, nature ‘selects’ favorable traits—mutations that improve a species’ survival chances are passed on to the next generation. Over long periods, these minor changes accumulate, resulting in new species. Thus, from simple organisms emerged the complex life forms we see today, including humans.

Following Darwin, scientists like Thomas Henry Huxley argued that humans and apes share a common ancestor. Discoveries such as the Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus), Java Man (Pithecanthropus), Peking Man (Sinanthropus), and Neanderthals added to this hypothesis. These fossils, while exhibiting some human-like traits, lacked the full characteristics of homo sapiens. Scholars describe them as "hominids" or "hominins"—human-like but not fully human.

Later discoveries, such as the Aurignacian culture in France, suggested the presence of modern humans with advanced cognitive abilities around 43,000 years ago. Neanderthals, on the other hand, are believed to have gone extinct around 40,000 years ago, possibly due to competition or interbreeding with early homo sapiens.

Muslim Contributions to Evolutionary Thought

Long before Darwin, Muslim scholars and philosophers had speculated on the origin of life and its transformation. Al-Jahiz (d. 869), in his book Kitab al-Hayawan (Book of Animals), proposed that species evolve and adapt due to environmental factors. He even discussed natural selection-like processes.

Other notable thinkers include:

Al-Farabi (d. 950): who emphasized the evolution of human intelligence and societies.

Al-Mas‘udi (d. 957): who proposed a chain from minerals to plants, animals, and then humans.

Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 1108): who wrote that humans evolve from minerals to plants to animals to rational beings.

Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1032): offered a comprehensive account of human emergence through natural stages, from matter to plants, animals, and finally, humans.

Ibn Tufayl (d. 1186): in his philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqzan, depicted a child developing intelligence and adapting to nature, mirroring evolutionary ideas.

Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406): in al-Muqaddimah, suggested that creation proceeds through interconnected stages—from matter to life to rational beings.

These Muslim scholars did not view evolution as atheistic. Rather, they saw it as the unfolding of divine will through natural processes.

Did Darwin Borrow From Islamic Thought?

There is no explicit statement by Darwin acknowledging Muslim sources. However, several 19th-century Western thinkers, like John William Draper, remarked on the similarities. Draper even referred to the "Mohammedan theory of evolution."

Moreover, Darwin’s grandfather Erasmus Darwin held ideas similar to those of earlier Muslim philosophers. Some modern Muslim historians, including Muhammad Hamidullah, argue that Darwin may have accessed Arabic texts or their ideas via orientalists like Samuel Lee, his known teacher at Cambridge.

The Epistles of the Brethren of Purity (Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa) presented a vision of evolution from minerals to man, with spiritual ascent beyond. These texts were available in English by the early 1800s and could have influenced European thinkers.

Scientific Revisions and Criticisms of Evolution

Over time, Darwin’s theory faced significant challenges. The discovery of DNA, genetics (beginning with Gregor Mendel), and modern molecular biology questioned the sufficiency of natural selection. The theory had to be modified into "Neo-Darwinism," which emphasized genetic mutations and their inheritance. Yet even this has limitations.

Fossil evidence for so-called "missing links" remains incomplete. Cases like the Piltdown Man—a notorious forgery—exposed the susceptibility of evolutionary claims to manipulation.

Today, scientists continue to debate how complex organs like the eye could evolve through purely random mutations. No definite pathways have been observed, only hypotheses.

As such, a growing number of scientists, including atheists like Fred Hoyle and agnostics like Francis Crick, now speak of an "intelligent design." Some, like Richard Dawkins, suggest that life may have originated through the intervention of a "higher intelligence"—perhaps even extraterrestrial. This view, known as "directed panspermia," ironically loops back to a form of creationism.

The Qur’anic Position and Theological Boundaries

The Qur’an consistently invites reflection on the origin of life, the cosmos, and humanity. Verses such as “Travel through the land and observe how He began creation” (29:20) encourage scientific inquiry. However, belief in Adam as the first human and prophet remains a core tenet.

Islam does not dismiss evolutionary processes as a means by which life diversifies. But it holds that Adam عليه السلام was not the result of such a process. He was created directly by God. This does not negate the existence of other hominids before him, as some Qur’anic exegetes suggest. The reference in Surah al-Baqarah (2:30) to angels questioning the creation of a “khalīfah” (vicegerent) who would cause bloodshed hints at the existence of prior beings—possibly human-like creatures.

The Qur’an also speaks of extraordinary births—such as that of Prophet Isa عليه السلام (Jesus) without a father, and Yahya عليه السلام (John the Baptist) born to an elderly, barren couple. Thus, the divine will is not bound by natural causes.

Islamic theology accepts that Allah may create through cause and effect—or bypass them entirely. Therefore, if future science were to validate evolutionary chains, it would not contradict Islamic belief, so long as the special creation of Adam remains preserved.

Concluding Reflections

While modern science explores how life diversified, it does not fully address how life originated. Evolution, even when broadly accepted, does not refute God’s existence. On the contrary, many findings point toward design, order, and intelligence. The Qur’an affirms: “We shall show them Our signs on the horizons and in themselves until it becomes clear to them that this is the truth” (41:53).

A believing Muslim can engage scientific theories critically and respectfully, affirming revelation while acknowledging human inquiry. Islam encourages such balanced reasoning. As long as one does not compromise the revealed truths of tawḥīd and prophethood, engaging with modern science, including evolutionary thought, can be an enriching act of faith.